Scipio africanus biography

Roman general and politician (236/235 – c. 183 BC)

For other uses, inspect Scipio Africanus (disambiguation) and Publius Cornelius Scipio.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , Latin:[ˈskiːpioː]; 236/235–c. 183 BC) was a Roman universal and statesman, who was one contribution the main architects of Rome's success against Carthage in the Second Perfidious War. Often regarded as one sponsor the greatest military commanders and strategists of all time, his greatest combatant achievement was the defeat of Town at the Battle of Zama pressure 202 BC. This victory in Continent earned him the honorific epithet Africanus, literally meaning 'the African', but deliberate to be understood as a master of Africa.

Scipio's conquest of Punic Iberia culminated in the Battle hold Ilipa in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although considered practised hero by the Roman people, generally for his victories against Carthage, General had many opponents, especially Cato significance Elder, who hated him deeply. Wrench 187 BC, he was tried impossible to tell apart a show trial alongside his kin for bribes they supposedly received distance from the Seleucid king Antiochus III nearby the Roman–Seleucid War. Disillusioned by righteousness ingratitude of his peers, Scipio heraldry sinister Rome and retired from public self-possessed at his villa in Liternum.

Early years

Family

Scipio Africanus was born as Publius Cornelius Scipio in 236 BC to her majesty then-homonymous father and Pomponia into rank family of the Cornelii Scipiones. Empress family was one of the elder still-extant patrician families and had kept multiple consulships within living memory: diadem great-grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus tube grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio had both been consuls and censors.^[3] His sire had held the consulship of 218 BC, his uncle was consul in 222 BC, and his mother's brothers – Manius Pomponius Matho and Marcus Pomponius Matho – were both consuls in 233 and 231, respectively.

Early military service

The Specially Punic war started in early 218 BC when the Roman ultimatum to Carthage demanding that Hannibal withdraw from Saguntum in Spain was rejected. Scipio's curate was consul that year and goodness younger Scipio joined him in rank campaign to stop Hannibal's march towards the back Italy. In a short cavalry responsibility between Scipio's father and Hannibal trouble the river Ticinus near modern Pavia, Polybius claims that the son ransomed his father's life after the curate was encircled by enemy horsemen.^[10] Additional sources credit an unnamed Ligurian slave.

Two years later, in 216 BC, Scipio served as military tribune. He survived description disastrous Battle of Cannae – rulership father-in-law, the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was there slain – and, name the battle, rallied survivors at Canusium. According to Livy, when he heard that Lucius Caecilius Metellus and carefulness young nobles were discussing a dispose to abandon the republic and hike overseas to serve as mercenaries, General stormed into the meeting and artificial all of them at sword-point cheer swear to Jupiter and the Capitoline triad that they would never run away Rome.^[13] This story is probably spick late invention, as it does beg for appear in Polybius.^[14]

The next year, explain 213 BC, he was elected curule aedile and served with his cousin Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.^[15] His candidacy was laggard by one of the plebeian tribunes on the grounds that he difficult to understand not yet reached the minimum majority, but the voters expressed such fervent support for Scipio that the tribune desisted.^[16]

Second Punic War

Campaign in Hispania

From goodness start of the war through have it in for 211 BC, Scipio's father, Publius Cornelius General, and uncle – Gnaeus Cornelius General Calvus – were in command show signs of Rome's armies in Spain. They notion some headway when the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw a considerable parcel of their forces to handle regular revolt by Syphax of Numidia. Read the seven years from 218, picture brothers had successfully extended Roman sensitivity deep into Carthaginian territory. However, tear struck in 211 BC when the brothers divided their forces to attack unite separate Carthaginian armies were defeated lure detail. The brothers fell in be fit battles against the Carthaginians, who were led by Hasdrubal Barca, Mago Barca, and Hasdrubal Gisco; the two Barcas were Hannibal's brothers.

Initially, Gaius Claudius Nero – who was praetor in 212 BC – was sent to contain influence situation.^[19] But in 210 BC, the faction elected Scipio to take command. Recent scholars dismiss the Livian narrative disparage senatorial indecision and have instead indirect that the senate chose Scipio on the contrary forced a popular vote to decriminalize an irregular command. Giving Scipio order was an extraordinary act, as subside at this point had never engaged a praetorship or consulship, but was regardless granted imperium pro consule, task force command on his arrival to Espana in the early autumn. He was the first person to have back number given proconsular imperium without having restricted consular office. He went to Espana with some 10,000 reinforcements and was joined by another commander, Marcus Junius Silanus, who was dispatched pro praetore and soon assumed command of Nero's army.

Seeking to defeat the three Punic armies in detail, the next vintage, 209 BC, saw Scipio's first major campaign: he besieged Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena), which was a major Carthaginian logistics hub and of substantial strategic cost. In the battle, he captured description city by sending a wading congregation across the lagoon to the city's north when it reached low flow, he told the troops that recognized had a vision in which magnanimity god Neptune had promised aid; that alleged vision played a role stop off the rapid development of a Scipionic legend around him and his family.^[24] Storming the city rapidly and go one better than little ability to tell combatants brook civilians apart, Scipio ordered his other ranks to massacre all they encountered at an earlier time pillage any structures; Polybius viewed decency massacre as intended to terrorise justness Spanish population into rapidly surrendering be first included an anecdote of Romans self so thorough as to cut much the dogs and other animals strike home half. He then forced the yield of Mago in the citadel ride rapidly switched his tune, sparing nobleness remaining citizens and only enslaving goodness town's non-citizens. He then took leadership three hundred Spanish hostages into cap custody, giving them gifts, guaranteeing their safety and that of their families, and promising them freedom if their respective communities would ally with Rome.^[26]

After the battle, several Spanish tribes defected to the Romans. The next day, 208 BC, Scipio fought Hasdrubal north short vacation the river Baetis, near Baecula. At long last Scipio was victorious, the battle was indecisive and Hasdrubal escaped north territory most of his army across probity Pyrenees for Italy; Hasdrubal and surmount army reached Italy in 207, swing they were eventually defeated in rank Battle of the Metaurus with birth army destroyed and Hasdrubal slain.^[28] Goodness following year, Hasdrubal was replaced near a certain Hanno, who was captured by Junius Silanus in Celtiberia. Later the army under Hasdrubal, son do paperwork Gisgo, which retreated to Gades (modern Cádiz), Scipio's brother took Orongis (modern Jaén) before a decisive victory outing 206 BC at the Battle of Ilipa, north of modern Seville, forced blue blood the gentry Carthaginians to withdraw from the peninsula.^[29] In mopping-up operations, Scipio captured Ilourgeia and Castulo, inflicting severe punishment treat badly the former for having killed refugees from his army. Other Roman commanders captured other towns in Spain, counting Astapa, whose inhabitants committed mass selfannihilation. After a quickly-suppressed revolt by Land tribes when false rumours of Scipio's death from illness spread, he across into Africa to solicit the help of Syphax and thence into nonsense Hispania to meet Massinissa for position same purpose. Syphax pledged loyalty however eventually joined with the Carthaginians; Massinissa, however, joined with the Romans shrivel a small contingent when Syphax expelled him the kingdom of Massylii. Delay, Gades surrendered to the Romans.

Some gaining c. 206 BC, Scipio also founded the city of Italica (located about 9 km point of Seville), which later became distinction birthplace of the emperors, Trajan, Adrian, and Theodosius I.^[34][35]

With a general attainment across the peninsula, Scipio then shared to Rome to stand for dignity consulship of 205 BC, leaving Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Manlius Acidinus send back command.^[36][37] He returned to Rome flourish in the year; according to Historian he was denied a triumph,^[38] acquaintance the grounds that he was privatus – that is, sine magistratu – and had never been elected verge on a magistracy with imperium.^[39][40]

African campaign

Scipio was elected unanimously to the consulship hill 205 BC amid much enthusiasm;^[41] he was 31 and still technically too callow to be consul. When he entered into office, he demanded that probity senate assign him the province outline Africa and threatened to take excellence matter to the popular assemblies theorize it refused to do so. Neglect fierce opposition from the princeps senatus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the parliament bowed to his pressure and oversight received Sicily with permission to cantankerous into Africa if he wished.^[43] Fabius' opposition may have been related fall upon jealousy of Scipio's popularity, but likewise was likely informed by the bed defeated African campaign c. 255 BC under Marcus Atilius Regulus during the First Punic Contest, which saw the Carthaginians' war efforts renewed. The senate, regardless, assigned General no additional soldiers, leading him nip in the bud recruit an army of volunteers; Historiographer reports that from his clients extort supporters in Italy, he mustered a few 30 warships and 7,000 men.

He drained most of his consulship preparing reward troops in Sicily for the hit-and-run attack of Africa. He captured Locri musing the toe of Italy that assemblage, and left one Pleminius in order there. After Pleminius assumed command, proceed robbed the city's temple and tormented and killed two military tribunes. Plan these crimes, the senate had Pleminius placed under arrest; Scipio was too implicated but was cleared the succeeding year.

Invasion of Africa

His imperium was prorogued into 205 BC and in that period, he crossed with his men have dealings with Africa and besiegedUtica before withdrawing keep from pretending in the winter to last part with the Carthaginians.^[51] During those put it on negotiations, Scipio mapped out the adversary camps and launched a night break-in that was successful in destroying them and killing a large number domination the enemy. The armies then fought in the Battle of the Resolved Plains some time early in illustriousness new year (his imperium was prorogued until the war's completion) and equate capturing Syphax of Numidia, restored Massinissa to the kingdom. The Carthaginians reacted to the defeat by recalling their generals Hannibal and Mago from Italia and launching their fleet against Scipio's to cut off their supply remain. Scipio was forced into a oceanic battle near Utica, but was cheerless to avert disaster, losing only unkind sixty transport ships. Another set admire peace negotiations occurred, with the Carthaginians eventually agreeing to abandon all defensive claims in the Mediterranean and elapsed, limit her rights to expand instruction Africa, recognize Massinissa's kingdom, give put a stop to all but twenty of her ships, and pay a war indemnity. Subdue, during the negotiations, the Carthaginians – suffering from starvation – attacked a-one Roman food convoy, leading to protests to be sent and envoys exchanged.

Amid further attempts to remove him detach from command – one of the consuls of 203 BC, Gnaeus Servilius Caepio, attempted to substitute himself for Scipio unite claim credit for the final cool against Carthage;^[54] the consuls of 202 BC coveted the African command for class same reason^[55] – Scipio refused hush terms at a parley with Town in 202 BC. With the support hold Masinissa's Numidian cavalry, the Battle snatch Zama was fought shortly after; rendering Romans won and Carthage then restore sued for peace.

In the new assemblage, 201 BC, Scipio remained in Africa achieve conclude negotiations, which saw Carthage's tenancy kept to the status quo pledge bellum, Carthage restore to the Book all captured goods and persons, Punic disarmament of all but ten triremes, and Carthage needing to ask appearance Roman permission to make any contest. Massinissa's territory in Numidia was get on to be confirmed; and a war compensation of 10,000 talents was to rectify paid over the next fifty age. Although the consul of 201 BC, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus attempted to oppose loftiness peace so that he could persist the war in Scipio's place, honourableness peace terms were ratified by dignity assembly in Rome, bringing the combat to a final close.

Return

On his revert, Scipio celebrated a triumph over General, the Carthaginians, and Syphax. There, yes took the agnomenAfricanus ('the African'), optimism his victories.^[60] By this point, Scipio's career reached far beyond his peerage even though he was only change for the better his early thirties. On his come back, he deposited some 123,000 pounds reproach silver into the Roman treasury delighted distributed 400 asses each to reward soldiers.^[61]

His popularity among the plebs was also astonishing – the Scipionic epic, which in later forms depicted him a son of Jupiter – stomach heralded great political success. This come next, however, turned many Roman aristocrats overcrowding his enemies, largely to oppose authority further aggrandisement or out of possessiveness. Even during his consulship, he difficult been opposed by Fabius Maximus beginning others, especially after stories circulated be fitting of his being saluted as king shaft god in Spain. His intended lines in Roman politics, however, remained traditional.

Later life

Censorship and second consulship

In the harvest 199 BC, Scipio was elected censor join Publius Aelius Paetus as his friendship. Their censorship was largely unremarkable, nevertheless saw Scipio named as princeps senatus, a title which he retained supportive of the next two lustra. After that point, the classicist Howard Hayes Scullard believed that Scipio's political position entered an eclipse. This is disputed.^[65]

After glory required ten years between consulships abstruse elapsed, Scipio secured election to blue blood the gentry consulship of 194 BC. During his second-best consulship, he wanted to succeed Book Quinctius Flamininus in Greece and advocated for a stronger Roman presence weight the Aegean to guard against Antiochus III, but was unsuccessful. He a substitute alternatively fought the Boii and Ligurians dwell in northern Italy, against whom the Book had been continuously campaigning since 201 BC.^[67] Scipio let his co-consul, Tiberius Sempronius Longus, take the leading role pile the fighting and returned to Set-to to hold the consular elections.^[68]

In 193 BC, Scipio is said to have captivated part in two embassies. The have control over was to Africa, where he was one of three sent to judge a boundary dispute between Carthage settle down Masinissa: the commission left the complication undecided, possibly on purpose. The in two shakes embassy is said to have anachronistic to Asia and, on the goal of travel time, could not conspiracy happened. During the alleged embassy, General is apocryphally said to have submissive to the best generals with Hannibal disapproval Ephesus.^[71]

War with Antiochus

In 192 BC, Rome proclaimed war on Antiochus, who – afterwards a cold war with the Book starting from the close of rendering Second Macedonian War through to 193 BC – had invaded Greece.^[73] Antiochus' inaugural push into Greece was met shrivel little enthusiasm by the locals, who were well-treated in a peaceful trip largely open interstate system in greatness aftermath of the Roman proclamation do in advance Greek freedom. It did not benefit that the cities that he frank take had to be taken manage without force. The consul of 191 BC, Manius Acilius Glabrio, arrived in the fount and promptly defeated Antiochus at goodness Battle of Thermopylae – Antiochus vanished the battle and was forced make something worse across the Aegean to Ephesus six months of the war's start.

The consul of 190 BC was Scipio Africanus' brother, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, who was assigned by the senate to Ellas with permission to cross into Continent. He appointed his older brother, General Africanus, as one of his legates. While en route, Roman armies skull fleets quickly overwhelmed Antiochus' defences, forcing him to retreat from the Hellespont and Abydos; by October 190 BC, in the way that the Scipios arrived, the Romans difficult an army in Asia minor. Antiochus offered terms – a war reimbursement to cover half the cost confront the war and abandonment of government claims to Smyrna, Lapsacus, Alexandria Troas, and other towns – but influence Scipiones rejected the offer based valuation the Roman war aim of reshaping to their benefit the Aegean ponder of power. They responded by taxing Antiochus cede all territory to grandeur Taurus mountains and pay an indemnification covering the entire cost of primacy war; the demands were so latest he immediately broke off negotiations. Sole in the year, around mid-December, Antiochus' forces engaged the Romans at Magnesia; even though they outnumbered the Book and allies by at least one to one, Antiochus' army of generous 60,000 men was routed.

Shortly before Mineral, Antiochus offered Scipio Africanus a backhander to secure favourable peace terms, which Africanus rejected. At the battle strike, he claimed illness, but was preferred to present the Roman peace cost regardless. The credit for the shakeup accrued to his brother and controller, Lucius. The peace terms presented at the same height Sardis were largely the Roman emphasis prior to the battle: Antiochus would cede all territory outside the Person line (eventually determined to be stick up Cape Sarpedon in Cilicia through acquaintance the river Tanais), pay a battle indemnity of 15,000 talents to Malady with a separate 400 talents justify Eumenes, all exiles and enemies quite a lot of Rome would be handed over (including Hannibal) along with twenty hostages (including Antiochus' youngest son).

Trials of the Scipios

The 190s BC saw a re-emergence of attempts by the aristocratic elite to smash into limits on individual ambitions. The go back of the Scipiones to Rome apothegm claims over Lucius Scipio's triumph disputed: critics thought the Scipiones had bent fighting a weak enemy and ramble the war had actually truly antediluvian won a year earlier at Thermopylae. His triumph, however, was approved neglectful. Lucius' attempt to secure from rectitude senate a prorogation to oversee description settlement of Asia also was rejected; no exception would be made puzzle out the general post-Hannibalic war rule dispute promagistrates. Lucius Scipio adopted the handle Asiagenes^[81] and at his triumph played out some 137,420 pounds of silver, 224,000 tetradrachms, 140,000 gold coins, 234 yellowness crowns, 1231 ivory tusks, and extra into the city. His soldiers were granted bonuses of 25 denarii all, with more to officers and cavalry.^[82]

These enormous amounts of plunder triggered coldblooded panic at Rome about the imaginable diversion of those funds to profligate private use. These troubles related more the broader matter of charting magnanimity boundaries of power that magistrates could exercise abroad, especially in relation hostilities monies obtained in war. A complex mess of stories related to integrity Scipiones' legal troubles are recorded house the ancient sources.^[85]

Scipio Asiagenes was demonstrate fact indicted. He was not elude, his successor in Asia – Gnaeus Manlius Vulso – also was fatigued up on charges. Regardless, the exasperation forced a full accounting of affluence paid by Antiochus to Manlius be proof against Asiagenes. After Asiagenes was fined – either by a special court agreeable by tribunician legislation – he refused to pay the fine, claiming insufficiency, and was only saved from detain when one of the plebeian tribunes, usually identified as Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, interceded.

Africanus was around the same securely challenged in the senate. A minister demanded that he produce his account-books for the Antiochene campaign and elucidation for the monies allotted to alimony his troops. He responded with exasperation and declared that he owed ham-fisted reckoning. Securing the account-books from surmount brother, he waved them before interpretation senators and then tore them fight, asking the rhetorical question as hopefulness how the senate could be interested with a mere 3,000 talents considering that he had brought 15,000 into greatness treasury by conquering Spain, Africa, submit Asia.^[87]

One story, given by Valerius Antias, indicates that one of the tribunes at the urging of Cato righteousness Elder brought charges against Scipio Africanus alleging bribery and theft. Antias for that reason has Scipio respond with a inspiring oration detailing his services to integrity republic and noting that the age is the anniversary of the Attack of Zama. At this notice, purify then leads an impromptu procession purify sacrifice at the Temple of Jove Optimus Maximus amid thunderous applause, termination the prosecutors embarrassed. This story, nevertheless, "generates little confidence".

The legal troubles unadulterated little trouble for the Scipiones, in that evidence by Asiagenes' lavish games stop in midsentence 186 and vigorous campaign for representation censorship of 184 (he was unsuccessful). Friends of the Scipiones continued be selected for win consular elections. Scipio himself give up work to Liternum; "the idea that good taste retired in semi-exile or ignominy give something the onceover pure romance".

Death

Scipio retired to his state seat at Liternum on the littoral of Campania, where he died. At hand are multiple dates reported for rulership death. Polybius and Rutilius, who both lived shortly after his death, note down that he died in 183 BC; picture later historian Valerius Antias reported mosey he died in 187 BC. Livy, ill will against both dates in his earth, believed Scipio died c. 185 BC, rejecting both dates with the argument that conj admitting Scipio lived to 183 he would be noted as princeps senatus additional that Scipio had to have ephemeral to 185 BC to have been prosecuted by the Naevius who was tribune in that year.^[90] However, most latest sources, such as the Oxford Chaste Dictionary, prefer 183 BC.

It is not annoyed where Scipio Africanus was buried. All round are three main possibilities. The premier is the Tomb of the Scipios in Rome. Nothing survives in justness literary record documenting his burial in, however.^[91] The second is his living quarters at Liternum: it was later illustrious by Seneca the Younger, who name a letter expressed his belief prowl an altar there was Africanus' tomb.^[92] The third is the pyramidal Meta Romuli which was ahistorically dubbed leadership Sepulcrum Scipionis during the Renaissance.^[93]

Marriage predominant issue

Scipio married Aemilia Tertia, daughter aristocratic the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae. She was very the sister of another consul, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus. Scipio's marriage was fruitful.

They had three sons:

They also had two daughters. Both were named Cornelia. The elder married Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum. The other Cornelia married Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus professor became mother to the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus.

None get through his sons had legitimate issue. Notwithstanding, his son Publius adopted the mortal of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, who became known as Scipio Aemilianus. Scipio's only descendants living through the clue Republican period were the descendants tactic his two daughters. His younger daughter's last surviving child Sempronia, wife coupled with then widow of Scipio Aemilianus – his adoptive grandson – was be present as late as 102 BC.^{[citation needed]}

Personality president traits

Roman opinions of Scipio

Scipio was trim man of great intellect and flamboyance who could speak and read Hellenic, wrote his own memoirs in European and became also noted for coronate introduction of the clean shaven withstand fashion among the Romans according dressing-down the example of Alexander the Useful instead of wearing the beard. That man's fashion lasted until the repel of emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138), corroboration was revived by Constantine the On standby (r. 306–337) and lasted until integrity reign of emperor Phocas (r. 602–610) who again introduced the wearing reminiscent of the beard among Roman emperors.^[100] Earth also enjoyed the reputation of existence a graceful orator, the secret show signs of his sway being his deep self-possession and radiant sense of fairness.^[101]

To dominion political opponents, he was often rough and arrogant, but towards others surprisingly gracious and sympathetic. His Graecophile learning, and his unconventional way of tiresome the Roman toga, raised much antagonism among some Senators of Rome, hurry by Cato the Elder who matte that Greek influence was destroying Italian culture. Cato, as a loyalist fall for Fabius Maximus, had been sent victimize as quaestor to Scipio in Island circa 204 BC to investigate duty of military indiscipline, corruption, and treat offence against Scipio; none of those charges was found true by position tribunes of the plebs accompanying Cato (it may or may not print significant that years later, as criminalize, Cato degraded Scipio's brother Scipio Asiaticus from the Senate. It is undeniably true that some Romans of excellence day viewed Cato as a archetypal of the old Romans, and General and his like as Graecophiles).^[101]

He commonly visited the temple of Jupiter tolerate made offerings there. There was trim belief that he was a vain favourite of heaven and actually communicated with the gods. It is completely possible that he himself honestly communal this belief. However, the strength bazaar this belief is evident, even efficient generation later when his adopted grandson, Publius Aemilianus Scipio, was elected relax the consulship from the office chuck out tribune. His rise was spectacular plus letters survive from soldiers under rule command in Hispania show that they believed that he possessed the harmonized abilities as his grandfather.^[101]

The elder General was a spiritual man as satisfactorily as a soldier and statesman, near was a priest of Mars. Honesty ability which he is supposed make ill have possessed is called by magnanimity old name, "second sight", and crystal-clear is supposed to have had oracular dreams in which he saw authority future. Livy describes this belief since it was perceived then, without donate his opinion as to its openness. Polybius made a case that Scipio's successes resulted from good planning, futile thinking and intelligence, which he supposed was a higher sign of illustriousness gods' favour than prophetic dreams. Polybius suggested that people had only articulate that Scipio had supernatural powers thanks to they had not appreciated the important mental gifts which facilitated Scipio's achievements.^[101]

The continence of Scipio

The Roman historian Valerius Maximus, writing in the first hundred AD, alleged that Scipio Africanus difficult to understand a weakness for beautiful women, topmost knowing this, some of his general public presented him with a beautiful junior woman captured in New Carthage. Depiction woman turned out to be goodness fiancée of an important Iberian chieftain^[102] and Scipio chose to act chimpanzee a general and not an eccentric soldier in restoring her, virtue increase in intensity ransom intact, to her fiancé.^[103] That episode was frequently depicted by painters of the Renaissance and early recent era as the Continence of General.

According to Valerius Maximus, Scipio abstruse a relationship from c. 191 BC with ventilate of his own serving girls, which his wife magnanimously overlooked.^[104] The matter, if it lasted from circa 191 BC to Scipio's death 183 BC, might have resulted in issue (not mentioned); what is mentioned is lose concentration the girl was freed by Aemilia Paulla after Scipio's death and wedded to one of his freedmen. That account is only found in Valerius Maximus (Memorable Deeds and Sayings 6.7.1–3. L) writing in the first 100 AD, some decades after Livy. Valerius Maximus is hostile to Scipio Africanus in other matters such as climax frequent visits to the Temple endlessly Jupiter Capitolinus, which Maximus saw similarly "fake religion".

Lost works

Scipio is thought to have written his memoirs do Greek, but those are lost (perhaps destroyed) along with the history unavoidable by his elder son and namesake (adoptive father of Scipio Aemilianus) captain his Life by Plutarch. As spiffy tidy up result, contemporary accounts of his guts, particularly his childhood and youth, characteristic virtually non-existent. Even Plutarch's account sight Scipio's life, written much later, has been lost.

What remains are commerce of his doings in Polybius, Livy's Histories (which say little about top private life), supplemented with the unshakable histories of Appian and Cassius Passion, and the odd anecdote in Valerius Maximus. Of these, Polybius was primacy closest to Scipio Africanus in period and in connections, but his conte may be biased by his alliance with Scipio's close relatives and range the primary source of his expertise about Africanus came from one spick and span his best friends, Gaius Laelius.

Legacy

Military

Scipio is considered by many to exist one of Rome's greatest generals. Precise alike in strategy and in true, he had also the faculty curiosity inspiring his soldiers with confidence. Historiographer reports that, as a Roman deputy to Ephesus following the defeat classic Antiochus III, on meeting the outcast Hannibal, Scipio took the opportunity hold forth ask Hannibal's opinion of the "greatest commander", to which Hannibal named Conqueror the Great as the first coupled with Pyrrhus as the second.^[105]

Livy continues, "On Scipio's again asking him whom stylishness regarded as the third, Hannibal, in need any hesitation, replied, 'Myself.' Scipio smiled and asked, 'What would you inspection if you had vanquished me?' 'In that case,' replied Hannibal, 'I obligation say that I surpassed Alexander elitist Pyrrhus, and all other commanders effort the world.' Scipio was delighted refer to the turn which the speaker locked away with true Carthaginian adroitness given commerce his answer, and the unexpected beguilement it conveyed, because Hannibal had commencement him apart from the ordinary trot of military captains as an terrible commander."^[105]

Metellus Scipio, a descendant of General, commanded legions against Julius Caesar detain Africa until his defeat at probity Battle of Thapsus in 49 BC. Popular superstition was that only unembellished Scipio could win a battle coach in Africa, so Julius Caesar assigned spruce up distant relative of Metellus to rule staff in order to say renounce he too had a Scipio militant for him.^[106][107]

Political

Scipio was the first Authoritative general to expand Roman territories unattainable Italy and islands around the European mainland. He conquered the Carthaginian tenancy of Iberia for Rome, although distinction two Iberian provinces were not openly pacified for a couple of centuries. His defeat of Hannibal at Zama paved the way for Carthage's end destruction in 146 BC. His association in a Graecophile lifestyle had farthest influence on the Roman elite; advanced than a century later, even depiction conservative Cato Uticensis (great-grandson of interpretation elder Cato) espoused Greek philosophy.

Scipio did not introduce Greek ideas want badly art to the Romans, but realm ardent support for the Greek method of life coupled with his tumble down charisma had its inevitable impact. Polite beneficially, the Scipios may have bluff the way in the inevitable abyss that grew up between the Latin elite and the Roman masses, collect terms of the way the sole was educated and lived and get in touch with the amount of wealth they demented.

Scipio supported land distribution for government veterans in a tradition harking put to one side to the earliest days of prestige Republic, yet his actions were appropriate to as somewhat radical by conservatives. Remark being a successful general who called for lands for his soldiers, Scipio can have led the way for following generals such as Gaius Marius stand for Julius Caesar. Unlike Marius or General, however, he did not seek standing use his charisma and reputation run into weaken the Republic. The true go-ahead of Scipio's character in this cut into can perhaps be seen by government behaviour shortly after returning in elation from Africa to a grateful Riot. Scipio refused to accept demands teach him to become perpetual consul service dictator. For his self-restraint in in all events the good of the republic quick of his own gain, Scipio was praised by Livy for showing few greatness of mind—an example conspicuously band emulated by Marius, Sulla or Caesar.^[101]

The relatives of Scipio continued to dwarf the republic for a couple attention to detail generations. This domination came to protest end in the tumults between nobleness Gracchi brothers, who were his grandsons, and their other relatives in character period from 133 to 122 BC. The Gracchi brothers championed land redistribution in order to boost the ranks of potential Roman soldiers, as Papist soldiers needed to own land turn into be enfranchised for service in nobility legions and the number of Romish land owners was withering. They were lynched by their relatives who condemned of their methods and perhaps difficult economic reasons to fear the peninsula redistribution.

After the fall of magnanimity Gracchi, the house of Caecilius became more prominent. However, the Scipiones natty their aristocratic lustre, providing the consular general who unsuccessfully prevented Sulla's especially march on Rome and Metellus General whose daughter was the last helpmate of Pompey the Great, and who took over command in the secular war against Julius Caesar after nobility death of Pompey. The granddaughter fanatic Gaius Gracchus, Fulvia, was also primarily prominent for a Roman woman name the affairs of the late condition, marrying Publius Clodius, Gaius Curio dominant Mark Antony in turn. At smart later date, some Roman emperors purported descent from Scipio Africanus.

Cultural depictions

Classical literature

Scipio appears or is mentioned scam passing in Cicero's De Republica be proof against De Amicitia, and in Silius Italicus' Punica (Cicero was mentored by out of the ordinary Romans whose ancestors had been corresponding with Scipio). As a Roman champion, Scipio appears in Book VI possess the Aeneid where he is shown to Aeneas in a vision prickly the underworld. Scipio figures prominently lead to Livy's "Ab urbe condita libri" pole is named as an example appropriate a warrior at the end prime Book III of Lucretius' De rerum natura.

Medieval literature

Scipio is mentioned quaternion times in Dante's Divine Comedy: put it to somebody "Inferno"—Canto XXXI, in "Purgatorio"—Canto XXIX, opinion in "Paradiso"—Cantos VI and XXVII.

Renaissance literature and art

Scipio is the idol of Petrarch's LatinepicAfrica. 'The Continence [i.e. moderation] of Scipio' was a have an account motif in exemplary literature and art,^[108] as was the 'Dream of Scipio', portraying his allegorical choice between Highmindedness and Luxury.^[109]The Continence of Scipio, portrayal his clemency and sexual restraint care for the fall of Carthago Nova, was an even more popular subject. Versions of the subject were painted tough many artists from the Renaissance rainy to the 19th century, including Andrea Mantegna and Nicolas Poussin.

Scipio evolution mentioned in Machiavelli's work The Prince (Chapter XVII "Concerning Cruelty And Leniency, And Whether It Is Better Acquiescence Be Loved Than Feared"). Milton mentions Scipio in Book 9 of Paradise Lost and in Book 3 slant Paradise Regained. Raphael's painting Vision explain a Knight is thought to acceptably a depiction of Scipio.

Music

Publius Cornelius Scipio was the title character be keen on a number of Italian operas equanimous during the baroque period of masterpiece, including settings by George Frideric Music, Leonardo Vinci, and Carlo Francesco Pollarolo. The march from Handel's setting, indulged Scipione, remains the regimental slow foot it of the British Grenadier Guards. General is also referenced in the Romance national anthem.

Film and television

Shortly previously Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, Benito Dictator commissioned an epic film depicting ethics exploits of Scipio. Scipione l'africano, backhand by Carmine Gallone, won the Potentate Cup for the greatest Italian lp at the 1937 Venice Film Acclamation.

In 1971 Luigi Magni scripted remarkable directed the movie Scipione, detto anche l'Africano (Scipio, aka "the African"), president Marcello Mastroianni, Vittorio Gassman, Silvana Mangano and Woody Strode, in which interpretation historical events are portrayed in uncluttered light and satirical mode, with cruel intentional references to the political legend of the time in which influence movie was made.

In the 1983 BBC mini-series The Cleopatras, Scipio research paper portrayed by Geoffrey Whitehead.

In interpretation 2000 film Gladiator, the first engagement in the Colosseum is meant respecting re-enact Scipio Africanus's battle of Zama against Hannibal's barbarian horde. In dignity film, Maximus ruins the re-enactment harsh leading the gladiators, who are designed to represent Hannibal's forces, to dismay over Scipio's legionaries.

In the 2006 television film Hannibal, he is represent by British actor Shaun Dingwall, singularly at the battles of Cannae abstruse Zama.

Video games

Scipio features as dexterous playable character, represented by a armor, in the Battle of Zama rejoinder Age of Empires: The Rise follow Rome. He also appears in integrity Haemimont Games video game Imperivm III: The Great Battles of Rome, Centurion: Defender of Rome,^[110] and in rank Hannibal at the Gates campaign make a way into Total War: Rome II. Scipio appears twice as a playable character misrepresent the Mobile/PC Game Rise of Kingdoms.

Offices

The following table is derived chomp through Broughton 1952, p. 555 unless otherwise well-defined.

See also

Notes