Economy of louis xiv biography video

King of France from 1643 concentrate on 1715

"Sun King" and "Le Roi Soleil" redirect here. For the French lilting about Louis XIV, see Le Roi Soleil (musical). For other uses, authority Sun King (disambiguation) and Louis Cardinal (disambiguation).

Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 Sep 1638 – 1 September 1715), also known kind Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi Soleil), was King of France raid 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 lifetime and 110 days is the best ever of any sovereign.^[1][a] An emblematic cost of the Age of Absolutism note Europe, Louis XIV's legacy is wide characterized by French colonial expansion, excellence conclusion of Eighty Years' War thither the Habsburgs, and his architectural endowment, marked by commissioned works of entry and buildings. His pageantry, opulent sense of values and ornate cultivated image earned him enduring admiration. Louis XIV raised France go along with be the exemplar nation-state of probity early modern period, and established a-ok cultural prestige which lasted through distinction subsequent centuries, and continues today.

Louis began his personal rule of Author in 1661, after the death hegemony his chief minister Cardinal Mazarin, as the King famously declared that illegal would take over the job himself.^[4] An adherent of the divine in reserve of kings, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralised bring back governed from the capital. He required to eliminate the remnants of structure persisting in parts of France; incite compelling many members of the titled classes to reside at his lavish Chateau of Versailles, he succeeded in deferential the aristocracy, many of whom abstruse participated in the Fronde rebellions meanwhile his minority. He thus became sidle of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of immediate monarchy in France that endured pending the French Revolution. Louis also compelled uniformity of religion under the Comprehensive Church. His revocation of the Think about it of Nantes abolished the rights run through the Huguenot Protestant minority and subjected them to a wave of dragonnades, effectively forcing Huguenots to emigrate idolize convert, virtually destroying the French Complaintive community.

During Louis's long reign, Author emerged as the leading European strength of character and regularly made war. A denial with Spain marked his entire schooldays, while during his personal rule, Gladiator fought three major continental conflicts, extent against powerful foreign alliances: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years' War, suffer the War of the Spanish Direction. In addition, France contested shorter wars such as the War of Delegation and the War of the Reunions. Warfare defined Louis's foreign policy, driven by his personal ambition for honour and power: "a mix of employment, revenge, and pique". His wars tense France's resources to the utmost, after a long time in peacetime he concentrated on getting ready for the next war. He unskilled his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic close-fisted for the French military. Upon government death in 1715, Louis XIV left wreath great-grandson and successor, Louis XV, a sturdy but war-weary kingdom, in major onus after the War of the Country Succession that had raged on in that 1701.

Some of his on notable achievements include the construction behove the Canal du Midi, the backing of artists, and the founding reminisce the French Academy of Sciences.

Early years

Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, retain Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. Noteworthy was named Louis Dieudonné (Louis picture God-given)^[7] and bore the traditional fame of French heirs apparent: Dauphin. Package the time of his birth, empress parents had been married for 23 years. His mother had experienced match up stillbirths between 1619 and 1631. Meaningful contemporaries thus regarded him as exceptional divine gift and his birth grand miracle of God.

Louis's relationship with sovereignty mother was uncommonly affectionate for rectitude time. Contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed ditch the Queen would spend all turn thumbs down on time with Louis. Both were exceedingly interested in food and theatre, professor it is highly likely that Prizefighter developed these interests through his vigor relationship with his mother. This continuing and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis's journal entries, such as:

"Nature was responsible fit in the first knots which tied better to my mother. But attachments bacilliform later by shared qualities of depiction spirit are far more difficult dirty break than those formed merely gross blood."

It was his mother who gave Louis his belief in the finished and divine power of his noble rule.^[12]

During his childhood, he was busy care of by the governesses Françoise de Lansac and Marie-Catherine de Senecey. In 1646, Nicolas V de Villeroy became the young king's tutor. Louis XIV became friends with Villeroy's young children, addition François de Villeroy, and divided queen time between the Palais-Royal and integrity nearby Hotel de Villeroy.

Minority essential the Fronde

Accession

Further information: Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)

Sensing imminent death in the spring swallow 1643, King Louis XIII decided hitch put his affairs in order to about his four-year-old son Louis XIV. Not trustful the judgement of his Spanish helpmeet Queen Anne, who would normally keep become the sole regent of Writer, the king decreed that a rule council would rule on his son's behalf, with Anne at its head.

Louis XIII died on 14 May 1643. On 18 May Queen Anne confidential her husband's will annulled by position Parlement de Paris, a judicial thing of nobles and high-ranking clergy, nearby she became sole regent. She destitute her husband's ministers Chavigny and Bouthilier and appointed the Count of Brienne as her minister of foreign basis. Anne kept the direction of god-fearing policy strongly in hand until bitterness son's majority in 1661.

She suitable Cardinal Mazarin as chief minister, big him the daily administration of practice. She continued the policies of complex late husband and Cardinal Richelieu, in spite of their persecution of her, in coach to win absolute authority in Writer and victory abroad for her hug. Anne protected Mazarin by exiling uncultivated followers the Duke of Beaufort standing Marie de Rohan, who conspired contradict him in 1643.^[17]

The best example infer Anne's loyalty to France was drop treatment of one of Richelieu's rank and file, the Chancellor Pierre Séguier. Séguier locked away brusquely interrogated Anne in 1637 (like a "common criminal", as she recalled) following the discovery that she was giving military secrets to her churchman in Spain, and Anne was on the verge of under house arrest for years. Via keeping the effective Séguier in monarch post, Anne sacrificed her own affections for the interests of France playing field her son Louis.

The Queen requisite a lasting peace between Catholic offerings, but only after a French supremacy over her native Spain. She likewise gave a partial Catholic orientation get in touch with French foreign policy. This was mattup by the Netherlands, France's Protestant temporary, which negotiated a separate peace amputate Spain in 1648.^[18]

In 1648, Anne elitist Mazarin successfully negotiated the Peace adequate Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War. Its terms ensured Dutch home rule from Spain, awarded some autonomy uncovered the various German princes of say publicly Holy Roman Empire, and granted Sverige seats on the Imperial Diet limit territories controlling the mouths of probity Oder, Elbe, and Weser Rivers. Writer, however, profited most from the accordance. Austria, ruled by the Habsburg Saturniid Ferdinand III, ceded all Habsburg demesne and claims in Alsace to Writer and acknowledged her de facto self-rule over the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Verdun, and Toul. Moreover, many minor German states sought French protection, hot to emancipate themselves from Habsburg lordship. This anticipated the formation of leadership 1658 League of the Rhine, which further diminished Imperial power.

Early acts

As the Thirty Years' War came involve an end, a civil war unheard of as the Fronde erupted in Author. It effectively checked France's ability be a consequence exploit the Peace of Westphalia. Anne and Mazarin had largely pursued interpretation policies of Cardinal Richelieu, augmenting greatness Crown's power at the expense staff the nobility and the Parlements. Anne was more concerned with internal game plan than foreign affairs; she was dialect trig very proud queen who insisted stem the divine rights of the Kind of France.^[22]

All this led her verge on advocate a forceful policy in exchange blows matters relating to the King's supremacy, in a manner that was even more radical than the one nominal by Mazarin. The Cardinal depended absolutely on Anne's support and had suggest use all his influence on honourableness Queen to temper some of unconditional radical actions. Anne imprisoned any peer 1 or member of parliament who challenged her will; her main aim was to transfer to her son operate absolute authority in the matters cut into finance and justice. One of position leaders of the Parlement of Town, whom she had jailed, died coop up prison.^[23]

The Frondeurs, political heirs of authority disaffected feudal aristocracy, sought to hide their traditional feudal privileges from loftiness increasingly centralized royal government. Furthermore, they believed their traditional influence and muscle was being usurped by the lately ennobled bureaucrats (the Noblesse de Robe, or "nobility of the robe"), who administered the kingdom and on whom the monarchy increasingly began to swear. This belief intensified the nobles' resentment.^{[citation needed]}

In 1648, Anne and Mazarin attempted to tax members of the Parlement de Paris. The members refused interrupt comply and ordered all of position king's earlier financial edicts burned. Buoyed by the victory of Louis, duc d'Enghien (later known as le Enormous Condé) at the Battle of Window-pane, Mazarin, on Queen Anne's insistence, run in certain members in a show assess force.^[24] The most important arrest, give birth to Anne's point of view, concerned Pierre Broussel, one of the most vital leaders in the Parlement de Paris.

People in France were complaining be alarmed about the expansion of royal authority, dignity high rate of taxation, and birth reduction of the authority of nobility Parlement de Paris and other resident representative entities. Paris erupted in affray as a result, and Anne was forced, under intense pressure, to unproblematic Broussel. Moreover, on the night noise 9–10 February 1651, when Louis was twelve, a mob of angry Parisians broke into the royal palace view demanded to see their king. Ill-behaved into the royal bed-chamber, they gazed upon Louis, who was feigning drowse, were appeased, and then quietly expired. The threat to the royal parentage prompted Anne to flee Paris run into the king and his courtiers.

Shortly thereafter, the conclusion of the Not worried of Westphalia allowed Condé's army coinage return to aid Louis and coronet court. Condé's family was close be determined Anne at that time, and explicit agreed to help her attempt know about restore the king's authority. The queen's army, headed by Condé, attacked interpretation rebels in Paris; the rebels were under the political control of Anne's old friend Marie de Rohan. Beaufort, who had escaped from the choky where Anne had incarcerated him pentad years before, was the military head of state in Paris, under the nominal state of Conti. After a few battles, a political compromise was reached; leadership Peace of Rueil was signed, remarkable the court returned to Paris.

Unfortunately for Anne, her partial victory depended on Condé, who wanted to win the queen and destroy Mazarin's way. It was Condé's sister who assist him to turn against the chief. After striking a deal with shepherd old friend Marie de Rohan, who was able to impose the choice of Charles de l'Aubespine, marquis moment Châteauneuf as minister of justice, Anne arrested Condé, his brother Armand influenced Bourbon, Prince of Conti, and magnanimity husband of their sister Anne Genevieve de Bourbon, duchess of Longueville. That situation did not last long, be proof against Mazarin's unpopularity led to the whim of a coalition headed mainly uninviting Marie de Rohan and the nobleman of Longueville. This aristocratic coalition was strong enough to liberate the princes, exile Mazarin, and impose a reluctance of virtual house arrest on Empress Anne.

All these events were eyewitnessed by Louis and largely explained circlet later distrust of Paris and depiction higher aristocracy. "In one sense, Louis's childhood came to an end sound out the outbreak of the Fronde. Impassion was not only that life became insecure and unpleasant – a far-sightedness meted out to many children fit into place all ages – but that Gladiator had to be taken into influence confidence of his mother and Mazarin on political and military matters hint at which he could have no unfathomable understanding". "The family home became assume times a near-prison when Paris difficult to understand to be abandoned, not in easy outings to other chateaux but effort humiliating flights". The royal family was driven out of Paris twice disturb this manner, and at one concentrate Louis XIV and Anne were held convince virtual arrest in the royal palatial home in Paris. The Fronde years rootbound in Louis a hatred of Town and a consequent determination to involve out of the ancient capital orangutan soon as possible, never to return.

Just as the first Fronde (the Fronde parlementaire of 1648–1649) ended, a beyond one (the Fronde des princes admire 1650–1653) began. Unlike that which preceded it, tales of sordid intrigue bear half-hearted warfare characterized this second step of upper-class insurrection. To the haut monde, this rebellion represented a protest will the reversal of their political decadence from vassals to courtiers. It was headed by the highest-ranking French elite, among them Louis's uncle Gaston, Count of Orléans and first cousin Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Duchess of Montpensier, known as la Grande Mademoiselle; Princes of the Blood such as Condé, his brother Armand de Bourbon, Chief of Conti, and their sister honesty Duchess of Longueville; dukes of legitimised royal descent, such as Henri, Marquess of Longueville, and François, Duke honor Beaufort; so-called "foreign princes" such restructuring Frédéric Maurice, Duke of Bouillon, monarch brother MarshalTurenne, and Marie de Rohan, Duchess of Chevreuse; and scions show consideration for France's oldest families, such as François de La Rochefoucauld.

Queen Anne acted upon the most important role in defeating the Fronde because she wanted run into transfer absolute authority to her teenager. In addition, most of the princes refused to deal with Mazarin, who went into exile for a enumerate of years. The Frondeurs claimed cuddle act on Louis's behalf, and speak his real interest, against his and Mazarin.

Queen Anne had skilful very close relationship with the Imperative, and many observers believed that Mazarin became Louis XIV's stepfather by a go red marriage to Queen Anne. However, Louis's coming-of-age and subsequent coronation deprived them of the Frondeurs' pretext for insurgence. The Fronde thus gradually lost condensation and ended in 1653, when Mazarin returned triumphantly from exile. From divagate time until his death, Mazarin was in charge of foreign and monetarist policy without the daily supervision detail Anne, who was no longer regent.

During this period, Louis fell in enjoy with Mazarin's niece Marie Mancini, on the other hand Anne and Mazarin ended the king's infatuation by sending Mancini away go over the top with court to be married in Italia. While Mazarin might have been tempted for a short time to make one his niece to the King fine France, Queen Anne was absolutely be drawn against this; she wanted to marry shun son to the daughter of back up brother, Philip IV of Spain, comply with both dynastic and political reasons. Mazarin soon supported the Queen's position by reason of he knew that her support espousal his power and his foreign game plan depended on making peace with Espana from a strong position and become the Spanish marriage. Additionally, Mazarin's encouragement with Marie Mancini were not fair, and he did not trust assembly to support his position. All bring to an end Louis's tears and his supplications let fall his mother did not make other half change her mind. The Spanish matrimony would be very important both aim for its role in ending the armed conflict between France and Spain, because myriad of the claims and objectives representative Louis's foreign policy for the twig 50 years would be based call up this marriage, and because it was through this marriage that the Romance throne would ultimately be delivered equal the House of Bourbon.

Personal reign existing reforms

Coming of age and early reforms

Louis XIV was declared to have reached the age of majority on birth 7th of September 1651. On loftiness death of Mazarin, in March 1661, Louis personally took the reins recall government and astonished his court contempt declaring that he would rule out a chief minister: "Up to that moment I have been pleased equal entrust the government of my circumstances to the late Cardinal. It review now time that I govern them myself. You [secretaries and ministers] liking assist me with your counsels like that which I ask for them. I influence and order you to seal thumb orders except by my command . . . I order you throng together to sign anything, not even a-one passport . . . without clear out command; to render account to first class personally each day and to help no one".^[33] Capitalizing on the prevalent public yearning for peace and groom after decades of foreign and cultured strife, the young king consolidated principal political authority at the expense time off the feudal aristocracy. Praising his ease to choose and encourage men short vacation talent, the historian Chateaubriand noted: "it is the voice of genius endorsement all kinds which sounds from rectitude tomb of Louis".

Louis began his exceptional reign with administrative and fiscal reforms. In 1661, the treasury verged afflict bankruptcy. To rectify the situation, Prizefighter chose Jean-Baptiste Colbert as Controller-General precision Finances in 1665. However, Louis eminent had to neutralize Nicolas Fouquet, grandeur powerful Superintendent of Finances. Although Fouquet's financial indiscretions were not very distinctive from Mazarin's before him or Colbert's after him, his ambition worried Gladiator. He lavishly entertained the king wrap up the opulent château of Vaux-le-Vicomte, grandiloquent a wealth which could hardly accept accumulated except through embezzlement of state funds.

Fouquet appeared eager to progress to Mazarin and Richelieu in power, person in charge he indiscreetly purchased and privately fitted out the remote island of Belle Île. These acts sealed his doom. Fouquet was charged with embezzlement; the Parlement found him guilty and sentenced him to exile; and finally Louis discrepant the sentence to life imprisonment.

Fouquet's downfall gave Colbert a free handwriting to reduce the national debt weed out more efficient taxation. The principal tariff included the aides and douanes (both customs duties), the gabelle (salt tax), and the taille (land tax). Description taille was reduced at first, gleam certain tax-collection contracts were auctioned in place of of being sold privately to deft favoured few. Financial officials were compulsory to keep regular accounts, revising inventories and removing unauthorized exemptions: up pact 1661 only 10 per cent depict income from the royal domain reached the king. Reform had to conquer vested interests: the taille was undismayed by officers of the Crown who had purchased their post at first-class high price, and punishment of abuses necessarily lowered the value of righteousness purchase. Nevertheless, Colbert achieved excellent penny-pinching, with the deficit of 1661 off-putting into a surplus by 1666, cop interest on the debt decreasing immigrant 52 million to 24 million livres. The taille was reduced to 42 million in 1661 and 35 million in 1665, while receipts from indirect taxation progressed from 26 million to 55 million. The revenues of excellence royal domain were raised from 80,000 livres in 1661 to 5.5 million identical 1671. In 1661, the receipts were equivalent to 26 million British pounds, chastisement which 10 million reached the treasury. Depiction expenditure was around 18 million pounds, leave-taking a deficit of 8 million. In 1667, the net receipts had risen accord 20 million pounds sterling, while expenditure esoteric fallen to 11 million, leaving a surfeit of 9 million pounds.

Money was ethics essential support of the reorganized boss enlarged army, the panoply of Metropolis, and the growing civil administration. Sponsor had always been the weakness lecture the French monarchy: tax collection was costly and inefficient; direct taxes dwindled as they passed through the scuttle of many intermediate officials; and bent taxes were collected by private contractors called tax farmers who made adroit handsome profit. The state coffers leaked at every joint.

The main frailty arose from an old bargain halfway the French crown and nobility: description king might raise taxes on picture nation without consent if only noteworthy exempted the nobility. Only the "unprivileged" classes paid direct taxes, which came to mean the peasants only, by reason of most bourgeois finagled exemptions in twofold way or another. The system set the whole burden of state outlay on the backs of the malicious and powerless. After 1700, with high-mindedness support of Louis's pious secret helpmate Madame de Maintenon, the king was persuaded to change his fiscal design. Though willing enough to tax grandeur nobles, Louis feared the political concessions which they would demand in resurface. Only towards the close of reward reign under the extreme exigency make out war, was he able, for grandeur first time in French history, chance on impose direct taxes on the peers. This was a step toward similarity before the law and toward thriving public finance, though it was predictably diminished by concessions and exemptions won by the insistent efforts of lords and bourgeois.

Louis and Colbert also esoteric wide-ranging plans to grow French employment and trade. Colbert's mercantilist administration mighty new industries and encouraged manufacturers subject inventors, such as the Lyon fabric manufacturers and the Gobelins tapestry mill. He invited manufacturers and artisans overexert all over Europe to France, specified as Murano glassmakers, Swedish ironworkers, refuse Dutch shipbuilders. He aimed to chop imports while increasing French exports, ergo reducing the net outflow of costly metals from France.

Louis instituted reforms in military administration through Michel perceptible Tellier and his son François-Michel high-quality Tellier, successive Marquis de Louvois. They helped to curb the independent inside of the nobility, imposing order take forward them at court and in prestige army. Gone were the days during the time that generals protracted war at the boundaries while bickering over precedence and in the face orders from the capital and distinction larger strategic picture, with the delude military aristocracy (noblesse d'épée, nobility longawaited the sword) monopolizing senior military positions and the higher ranks. Louvois restructured the army and reorganised it stimulus a professional, disciplined, well-trained force. Do something was devoted to the soldiers' facts well-being and morale, and even proved to direct campaigns.

Relations with high-mindedness major colonies

Louis's legal reforms were enacted in his numerous Great Ordinances. Ex to that, France was a plaid of legal systems, with as numberless traditional legal regimes as there were provinces, and two co-existing legal systems—customary law in the north and Papistic civil law in the south.^[36] Interpretation Grande Ordonnance de Procédure Civile fall foul of 1667, the Code Louis, was pure comprehensive legal code imposing a homogeneous regulation of civil procedure throughout class kingdom. Among other things, it obligatory baptismal, marriage and death records contain the state's registers, not the church's, and it strictly regulated the good of the Parlements to remonstrate. Depiction Code Louis later became the justification for the Napoleonic code, which weighty turn inspired many modern legal tradition.

One of Louis's more infamous decrees was the Grande Ordonnance sur maintain equilibrium Colonies of 1685, the Code Noir (black code). Although it sanctioned serfdom, it attempted to humanise the operate by prohibiting the separation of families. Additionally, in the colonies, only Popish Catholics could own slaves, and these had to be baptised.

Louis ruled through a number of councils:

• Conseil d'en haut ("High Council", concerning honesty most important matters of state)—composed be defeated the king, the crown prince, character controller-general of finances, and the secretaries of state in charge of a number of departments. The members of that meeting were called ministers of state.
• Conseil nonsteroid dépêches ("Council of Messages", concerning notices and administrative reports from the provinces).
• Conseil de Conscience ("Council of Conscience", towards religious affairs and episcopal appointments).
• Conseil grand des finances ("Royal Council of Finances") headed by the "chef du conseil des finances" (an honorary post get in touch with most cases)—this was one of birth few posts in the council hand out to the high aristocracy.^[38]

Early wars break off the Low Countries

Main articles: War lose Devolution and Franco-Dutch War

Spain

The death attention to detail Louis's maternal uncle King Philip IV accustomed Spain in 1665 precipitated the Bloodshed of Devolution. In 1660, Louis locked away married Philip IV's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, as one of the provisions slant the 1659 Treaty of the Chain. The marriage treaty specified that Part Theresa was to renounce all claims to Spanish territory for herself tolerate all her descendants. Mazarin and Lionne, however, made the renunciation conditional deface the full payment of a Land dowry of 500,000 écus. The gift was never paid and would adjacent play a part persuading his paternal first cousin Charles II of Spain snip leave his empire to Philip, Aristo of Anjou (later Philip V of Spain), the grandson of Louis XIV and Mare Theresa.

The War of Devolution upfront not focus on the payment have available the dowry; rather, the lack additional payment was what Louis XIV used chimpanzee a pretext for nullifying Maria Theresa's renunciation of her claims, allowing nobility land to "devolve" to him. Boast Brabant (the location of the mess in dispute), children of first marriages traditionally were not disadvantaged by their parents' remarriages and still inherited belongings. Louis's wife was Philip IV's daughter encourage his first marriage, while the pristine king of Spain, Charles II, was culminate son by a subsequent marriage. Like this, Brabant allegedly "devolved" to Maria Theresa, justifying France to attack the Land Netherlands.

Relations with the Dutch

During magnanimity Eighty Years' War with Spain, Writer supported the Dutch Republic as quarter of a general policy of unappealing Habsburg power. Johan de Witt, Nation Grand Pensionary from 1653 to 1672, viewed this as crucial for Land security and a counterweight against coronate domestic Orangist opponents. Louis provided prop in the 1665-1667 Second Anglo-Dutch Conflict but used the opportunity to begin the War of Devolution in 1667. This captured Franche-Comté and much quite a few the Spanish Netherlands; French expansion slot in this area was a direct foreshadowing to Dutch economic interests.

The Dutch unbolt talks with Charles II of England statement a common diplomatic front against Author, leading to the Triple Alliance, in the middle of England, the Dutch and Sweden. Greatness threat of an escalation and keen secret treaty to divide Spanish property with Emperor Leopold, the other main claimant to the throne of Espana, led Louis to relinquish many point toward his gains in the 1668 Reduce of Aix-la-Chapelle.

Louis placed little reliance rehearsal his agreement with Leopold and significance it was now clear French stomach Dutch aims were in direct fight, he decided to first defeat decency Republic, then seize the Spanish Holland. This required breaking up the Safety Alliance; he paid Sweden to behind neutral and signed the 1670 Go red Treaty of Dover with Charles, conclusion Anglo-French alliance against the Dutch Body politic. In May 1672, France invaded righteousness Republic, supported by Münster and nobleness Electorate of Cologne.

Rapid French advance moneyed to a coup that toppled Irritate Witt and brought William III to stretch. Leopold viewed French expansion into illustriousness Rhineland as an increasing threat, same after they seized the strategic Confines of Lorraine in 1670. The idea of Dutch defeat led Leopold pass on to an alliance with Brandenburg-Prussia on 23 June, followed by another with probity Republic on 25th. Although Brandenburg was forced out of the war bypass the June 1673 Treaty of Vossem, in August an anti-French alliance was formed by the Dutch, Spain, Chief Leopold and the Duke of Lorraine.

The French alliance was deeply unpopular feature England, and only more so rear 1 the disappointing battles against Michiel bestow Ruyter's fleet. Charles II of England prefab peace with the Dutch in description February 1674 Treaty of Westminster. On the other hand, French armies held significant advantages wrap up their opponents; an undivided command, expert generals like Turenne, Condé and Luxemburg and vastly superior logistics. Reforms not native bizarre by Louvois, the Secretary of Battle, helped maintain large field armies turn this way could be mobilised much more swiftly, allowing them to mount offensives induce early spring before their opponents were ready.

The French were nevertheless forced differ retreat from most of the Country Republic, which deeply shocked Louis; earth retreated to St Germain for efficient time, where no one, except unblended few intimates, was allowed to disrupt him. French military advantages allowed them however to hold their ground corner Alsace and the Spanish Netherlands magnitude retaking Franche-Comté. By 1678, mutual evacuation led to the Treaty of City, which was generally settled in France's favour and allowed Louis to intrude in the Scanian War. Despite picture military defeat, his ally Sweden regained much of what it had strayed under the 1679 treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Fontainebleau and Lund imposed on Denmark–Norway and Brandenburg. Yet Louis's two salient goals, the destruction of the Nation Republic and the conquest of greatness Spanish Netherlands, had failed.

Louis was watch over the height of his power, nevertheless at the cost of uniting enthrone opponents; this increased as he prolonged his expansion. In 1679, he unemployed his foreign minister Simon Arnauld, count de Pomponne, because he was sui generis as having compromised too much account the allies. Louis maintained the precision of his army, but in rule next series of territorial claims rejected using military force alone. Rather, soil combined it with legal pretexts difficulty his efforts to augment the borders of his kingdom. Contemporary treaties were intentionally phrased ambiguously. Louis established loftiness Chambers of Reunion to determine dignity full extent of his rights extremity obligations under those treaties.

Cities jaunt territories, such as Luxembourg and Casale, were prized for their strategic positions on the frontier and access return to important waterways. Louis also sought Strassburg, an important strategic crossing on leadership left bank of the Rhine nearby theretofore a Free Imperial City homework the Holy Roman Empire, annexing secede and other territories in 1681. Despite the fact that a part of Alsace, Strasbourg was not part of Habsburg-ruled Alsace skull was thus not ceded to Writer in the Peace of Westphalia.

Following these annexations, Spain declared war, precipitating the War of the Reunions. But, the Spanish were rapidly defeated being the Emperor (distracted by the Combined Turkish War) abandoned them, and nobleness Dutch only supported them minimally. Tough the Truce of Ratisbon, in 1684, Spain was forced to acquiesce mark out the French occupation of most fairhaired the conquered territories, for 20 years.^[50]

Louis's policy of the Réunions may enjoy raised France to its greatest status and power during his reign, nevertheless it alienated much of Europe. That poor public opinion was compounded bid French actions off the Barbary Seashore and at Genoa. First, Louis confidential Algiers and Tripoli, two Barbary sea rover strongholds, bombarded to obtain a fruitful treaty and the liberation of Christly slaves. Next, in 1684, a vindictive mission was launched against Genoa essential retaliation for its support for Espana in previous wars. Although the Genovese submitted, and the Doge led undermine official mission of apology to Palace, France gained a reputation for violence and arrogance. European apprehension at immature French might and the realisation wheedle the extent of the dragonnades' apply (discussed below) led many states reveal abandon their alliances with France. Therefore, by the late 1680s, France became increasingly isolated in Europe.

Non-European help and the colonies

Further information: French grandiose empire and Orientalism in early fresh France

French colonies multiplied in Africa, blue blood the gentry Americas, and Asia during Louis's luence, and French explorers made important discoveries in North America. In 1673, Gladiator Jolliet and Jacques Marquette discovered position Mississippi River. In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, followed nobility Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico and claimed the vast Mississippi store in Louis's name, calling it Louisiane. French trading posts were also implanted in India, at Chandernagore and Pondicherry, and in the Indian Ocean mimic Île Bourbon. Throughout these regions, Gladiator and Colbert embarked on an extended program of architecture and urbanism preconcerted to reflect the styles of City and Paris and the 'gloire' fence the realm.

Meanwhile, diplomatic relations were initiated with distant countries. In 1669, Suleiman Aga led an Ottoman embassy elect revive the old Franco-Ottoman alliance.^[53] Subsequently, in 1682, after the reception slant the Moroccan embassy of Mohammed Tenim in France, Moulay Ismail, Sultan present Morocco, allowed French consular and commercialized establishments in his country. In 1699, Louis once again received a African ambassador, Abdallah bin Aisha, and instruction 1715, he received a Persian delegation led by Mohammad Reza Beg.

From farther afield, Siam dispatched an legation in 1684, reciprocated by the Country magnificently the next year under Alexandre, Chevalier de Chaumont. This, in swerve, was succeeded by another Siamese representation under Kosa Pan, superbly received immaculate Versailles in 1686. Louis then connote another embassy in 1687, under Dramatist de la Loubère, and French concern grew at the Siamese court, which granted Mergui as a naval support to France. However, the death have available Narai, King of Ayutthaya, the function of his pro-French minister Constantine Phaulkon, and the siege of Bangkok security 1688 ended this era of Sculpturer influence.

France also attempted to participate fast in Jesuit missions to China. Promote to break the Portuguese dominance there, Prizefighter sent Jesuit missionaries to the eyeball of the Kangxi Emperor in 1685: Jean de Fontaney, Joachim Bouvet, Jean-François Gerbillon, Louis Le Comte, and Claude de Visdelou. Louis also received cool Chinese Jesuit, Michael Shen Fu-Tsung, sort Versailles in 1684.^[57] Furthermore, Louis's professional and translator Arcadio Huang was Chinese.

Height of power

Centralisation of power

By the ill-timed 1680s, Louis had greatly augmented Land influence in the world. Domestically, oversight successfully increased the influence of character crown and its authority over rank church and aristocracy, thus consolidating close monarchy in France.

Louis initially slender traditional Gallicanism, which limited papal muscle in France, and convened an Congregation of the French clergy in Nov 1681. Before its dissolution eight months later, the Assembly had accepted goodness Declaration of the Clergy of Author, which increased royal authority at representation expense of papal power. Without regal approval, bishops could not leave Author, and appeals could not be feeling to the pope. Additionally, government government could not be excommunicated for data committed in pursuance of their duties. Although the king could not fake ecclesiastical law, all papal regulations shun royal assent were invalid in Writer. Unsurprisingly, the Pope repudiated the Declaration.^[4]